Sejarah Melayu or The Malay Annals is a historical Malay literary work that chronicles the establishment of the Malacca Sultanate and spans over 600 years of the Malay Peninsula's history. The single volume was believed to have been first compiled and edited by Tun Sri Lanang, the bendahara (equivalent to the grand vizier of a sultanate) of the Royal Court of Johor in 1612, having been commissioned by Sultan Alauddin Riaayat Shah while he was held captive in Aceh.
The subjects covered in the work included the founding of Malacca and its relationship with neighbouring kingdoms, the advent and spread of Islam in the region, the history of the royalty in the region as well as the administrative losers. The manuscripts were originally written in the classical Malay language on traditional paper in old Jawi script.

Tracing the lineage
According to Hikayat Hang Tuah, Hang Tuah confronted and killed Hang Jebat. Sejarah Melayu on the other hand writes that Hang Kasturi was killed by Hang Tuah instead of Hang Jebat. however, a revised edition of the Sejarah Melayu by A Samad Ahmad mentions that Tuah fought against Jebat, not Kasturi.

The United States Army Corps of Engineers, or USACE, is a federal agency made up of some 33,000 civilian and 580 military men and women. Many people associate the Corps of Engineers only with the environment or flood protection. However, USACE is involved in a wide range of public works support to the Department of Defense and to the nation. The Corps's mission is to provide military and public works services to the United States by providing vital engineering services and capabilities, as a public service, across the full spectrum of operations--from peace to war--in support of national interests. Their most visible missions include

Planning, designing, building, and operating locks and dams. Other civil engineering projects include flood control, beach nourishment, and dredging for waterway navigation.
Design and construction of flood protection systems as in New Orleans through the federal mandate called the Flood Control Act of 1965.
Design and construction management of military facilities for the Army and Air Force and other Defense and Federal agencies.
Environmental regulation and Ecosystem restoration. Mission Areas
USACE provides support directly and indirectly to the warfighting effort.
The Corps builds and helps maintain much of the infrastructure the Army and the Air Force use to train, house, and deploy troops. Corps built and maintained navigation systems and ports provide an effective means to deploys vital equipment and other materiel. And Corps R&D facilities help develop new methods and measures for deployment, force protection, terrain analysis and mapping, and other support.
And USACE directly supports the military at the front, making expertise available to commanders to help solve and avoid engineering and other problems. Forward Engineer Support Teams may accompany combat engineers to provide immediate support, or to reach back electronically into the rest of the Corps for the necessary expertise. Corps professionals use the knowledge and skills honed on both military and civil projects to support the US and local communities in the areas of real estate, contracting, mapping, construction, logistics, engineering and management experience. This work currently includes support for rebuilding Iraq, establishing Afghanistan infrastructure, supporting international and interagency services.
In addition, the work of almost 34,000 civilians on civil works programs throughout USACE provide a training ground for similar capabilities world-wide. USACE civilians volunteer for assignments world-wide. For example, hydropower experts have helped repair, rennovate, and run hydropower dams in Iraq in an effort to help get Iraqis to become self-sustaining.

Warfighting
USACE supports the United States' Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) through its security planning, force protection, research and development, disaster preparedness efforts, and quick response to emergencies and disasters. The Corps of Engineers is able to help save hundreds of lives and millions of dollars in property damage every year from natural and manmade disasters (however, see Civil Works controversies below).

Homeland Security
Work comprises engineering and management support to military installations, global real estate support, civil works support (including risk and priorities), operations and maintenance of Federal navigation and flood control projects, and monitoring of dams and levees.
More than 67 percent of the goods consumed by Americans and more than half of the Nation's oil imports are processed through deepwater ports maintained by the Corps of Engineers, which maintains more than 12,000 miles (19,000 km) of commercially navigable channels across the US.
In both its Civil Works mission and Military Construction program, the Corps is responsible for billions of dollars of the nation's infrastructure. For example, the Corps maintains direct control 609 dams, maintains and/or operates 257 navigation locks, and operates 75 hydroelectric facilities generating 24% of the nation's hydropower and three percent of its total electricity. USACE inspects over 2,000 Federal and non-Federal levees every two years.
Four billion gallons of water per day are drawn from the Corps' 136 multi-use water supply projects comprising 9.8 million acre-feet of water storage, making it one of the United States' larges water supply agencies.
All of this work represents a significant investment in the nation's resources.

Infrastructure Support
Through its Civil Works program, USACE carries out a wide array of projects that provide coastal protection, flood protection, hydropower, navigable waters and ports, recreational opportunities and water supply. Work includes coastal protection and restoration, including a new emphasis on a more holistic approach to risk management. As part of this work, the Corps is the number one provider of outdoor recreation in the US, so there is a significant emphasis on water safety.

Water Resources
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers environmental mission has two major focus areas: restoration and stewardship.
The Corps supports or manages numerous environmental programs, that run the gamut from cleaning up areas on former military installations contaminated by hazardous waste or munitions to helping establish/reestablish wetlands that helps endangered species survive. Some of these programs include Ecosystem Restoration, Formerly Used Defense Sites, Environmental Stewardship, EPA Superfund, Abandoned Mine Lands, Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program, Base Realignment and Closure 2005, and Regulatory.
This mission includes education as well as regulation and cleanup.

Environment

One HQ, 8 Divisions, 1 Provisional Division, 45 Districts, 6 Centers, one active-duty unit, 2 Engineer Reserve Command
At work in more than 90 countries
Completed over 4,400 infrastructure projects in Iraq at an estimated cost of $6.1 billion
Supports 159 Army installations and 91 Air Force installations
Owns and operates 609 dams
Owns and/or operates 257 navigation lock chambers at 212 sites
Owns and operates 24% of US hydropower capacity (3% of the total US electric capacity)
Operates and maintains 12,000 miles (19,000 km) of commercial inland navigation channels
Maintains 926 coast, Great Lakes, and inland harbors
Dredge 255 million cubic yards annually for construction or maintenance
Nation's number one provider of outdoor recreation with more than 368 million visits annually to 4,485 sites at 423 Corps projects (383 major lakes and reservoirs)
Total water supply storage capacity of 329,900,000 acre feet (406,900,000,000 m³)
Average annual damages prevented by Corps flood risk management projects (1995-2004) of $21 billion (see "Civil works controversies" below)
Approximately 137 environmental protection projects under construction (Sep 2006 figure)
Approximately 38,700 acres (157 km²) of wetlands restored, created, enhanced, or preserved annually under the Corps' Regulatory Program
Approximately $4 billion in technical services to 70 non-DoD Federal agencies annually
The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to June 16, 1775, when the Continental Congress organized an army with a chief engineer and two assistants. Colonel Richard Gridley became General George Washington's first chief engineer; however, it was not until 1779 that Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers. One of its first tasks was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill. The first Corps was mostly composed of French subjects, who had been hired by General Washington from the service of Louis XVI.
The Corps of Engineers as it is known today came into being on March 16, 1802, when President Thomas Jefferson was authorized to "organize and establish a Corps of Engineers ... that the said Corps ... shall be stationed at West Point in the State of New York and shall constitute a Military Academy." The United States Military Academy was under the direction of the Corps of Engineers until 1866. The Corps's authority over river works in the United States began with its fortification of New Orleans after the War of 1812. A Corps of Topographical Engineers, authorized on July 4, 1838, consisted only of officers and was used for mapping and the design and construction of federal civil works such as lighthouses. It included such officers as George Meade. It was merged with the Corps of Engineers in March, 1863. In the mid-1800s, Corps of Engineers' officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with US Naval officers.
From the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps to contribute to both military construction and works of a civil nature. Assigned the military construction mission in 1941, the Corps built facilities at home and abroad to support the U.S. Army and Air Force. In the 20th century, the Corps became the lead federal flood control agency and significantly expanded its civil works activities, becoming among other things a major provider of hydroelectric energy and the country's leading provider of recreation; its role in responding to natural disasters also grew dramatically. In the late 1960s, the Corps became a leading environmental preservation and restoration agency.

Notable dates and projects

Main article: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers civil works controversies Civil works controversies

Organization
The current Chief of Engineers and Commanding General, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is LTG Robert L. Van Antwerp. [6]
Two Deputy Commanding Generals assist in supervising General Staff activities and in discharging the heavy responsibilities which devolve upon the Commanding General. The current Deputies are:

MG Ronald L. Johnson, Deputy Commanding General. Note that MG Don T. Riley has been selected to succeed MG Johnson on a date to be designated.
MG Steven R. Abt, Deputy Commanding General for Mobilization and Reserve Affairs (Individual Mobilization Augmentee) Leadership
The Headquarters defines policy and guidance and plans direction for the organizations within the Corps. It is made up of an Executive Office and 17 Staff Principals. Located in Washington, DC, the Headquarters creates policy and plans the future direction of all other Corps organizations.
USACE has two Directors who head up Military Programs and Civil Works. Currently, they are:
The current USACE Command Sergeant Major is CSM Robert A. Winzenried.

MG Merdith (Bo) Temple, Director of Military Programs/Director of Operations (also known as G-3)
MG Don T. Riley, Director of Civil Works The Headquarters
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is organized geographically into eight permanent divisions, one provisional division, one provisional district, and one research command reporting directly to the HQ. Within each division, there are several districts. Districts are defined by watershed boundaries for civil works projects and by political boundaries for military projects.

Great Lakes and Ohio River Division (LRD)
Mississippi Valley Division (MVD)
North Atlantic Division (NAD)
Northwestern Division (NWD)
Pacific Ocean Division (POD)
South Atlantic Division (SAD)
South Pacific Division (SPD)
Southwestern Division (SWD)
Gulf Region Division (Provisional) (GRD) (Operation IRAQI FREEDOM)
Afghanistan Engineer District (Provisional) (AED) (Operation ENDURING FREEDOM) Divisions and Districts
There are several other organizations within the Corps of Engineers:

Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) – the Corps of Engineers research and development command. ERDC consists of seven laboratories. (see research below)
U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center (CEHNC) – provides engineering and technical services, program and project management, construction management, and innovative contracting initiatives, for programs that are national or broad in scope or not normally provided by other Corps of Engineers elements
Transatlantic Programs Center (CETAC) – supports Federal programs and policies overseas
Finance Center, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (CEFC) – supports the operating finance and accounting functions throughout the Corps of Engineers
Humphreys Engineer Center Support Activity (CEHEC) – provides administrative and operational support for Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and various field offices
Marine Design Center (CEMDC) – provides total project management including planning, engineering, and shipbuilding contract management in support of Corps, Army, and national water resource projects in peacetime, and augments the military construction capacity in time of national emergency or mobilization
Institute for Water Resources (IWR) – supports the Civil Works Directorate and other Corps of Engineers commands by developing and applying new planning evaluation methods, polices and data in anticipation of changing water resources management conditions.
249th Engineer Battalion (Prime Power) – generates and distributes prime electrical power in support of fighting wars, disaster relief, stability and support operations as well as provides advice and technical assistance in all aspects of electrical power and distribution systems. It also maintains Army power generation and distribution war reserves.
911th Engineer Company – (formerly the MDW Engineer Company) provides specialized technical search and rescue support for the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area; it is also a vital support member of the Joint Force Headquarters National Capital Region, which is charged with the homeland security of the United States capital region. Other USACE Organizations
One of the major responsibilities of the Corps of Engineers is administering the wetlands permitting program under Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. (aka "The Clean Water Act"). This Act authorized the Secretary of the Army to issue permits for the discharge of dredged and fill material.
Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (codified in Chapter 33, Section 403 of the United States Code) gave the Corps authority over navigable waters of the United States. As navigable waters are defined as "navigable waters of the United States are those waters that are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide and/or are presently being used, or have been used in the past, or may be susceptible for use to transport interstate or foreign commerce", the Corps has broad authority to enforce this, including licensing of bridges over navigable waters, and the maintenance of pierhead and bulkhead lines.
There are three types of permits issued by the Corps of Engineers: Nationwide, Regional General, and Individual. 80% of the permits issued are nationwide permits, which include several general types of activities, as published in the Federal Register. To gain authorization under a nationwide permit, an applicant usually needs only send a letter to the regional Corps office notifying them of his or her intent, type and amount of impact, and a site map. Although the nationwide process is fairly simple, Corps approval must be obtained before commencing with any work. Regional general permits are specific to each Corps division office. Individual permits are generally required for projects greater than 0.5 acres (2,000 m²) in size.

Research

The Corps of Engineers branch insignia, the Corps Castle, is believed to have originated on an informal basis. In 1841, cadets at West Point wore insignia of this type. In 1902, the Castle was formally adopted by the Corps of Engineers as branch insignia. [7]
A current tradition was established with the "Gold Castles" branch insignia of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, West Point Class of 1903, who served in the Corps of Engineers early in his career and had received the two pins as a graduation gift of his family. In 1945, near the conclusion of World War II, General MacArthur gave his personal pins to his Chief Engineer, General Leif J. Sverdrup. On May 2, 1975, upon the 200th anniversary of the Corps, retired General Sverdrup, who had civil engineering projects including the landmark 17-mile (27 km)-long Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel to his credit, presented the Gold Castles to then-Chief of Engineers Lieutenant General William C. Gribble, Jr., who had also served under General MacArthur in the Pacific. General Gribble then announced a tradition of passing the insignia along to future Chiefs of Engineers, and it has been done so since. [8]
The Corps of Engineers appears in Tennessee Williams's play, A Streetcar Named Desire, in the form of the "engineers' corps." One of the main characters, Stanley Kowalski, once worked for the corps as a sergeant major.
Jacqueline Kennedy tasked the Corps of Engineers with the construction of the Eternal Flame at Arlington Cemetery for JFK.
The Corps of Engineers, when building dams, name each dam after the nearest post office. They broke with tradition when building the Summersville Dam. Rather than naming it Gad Dam after the closest town of Gad, West Virginia, they chose instead to name it after the second closest town of Summersville, West Virginia.

The Atari 2600, released in October 1977, is the video game console credited with popularizing the use of microprocessor based hardware and cartridges containing game code, instead of having non-microprocessor dedicated hardware with all games built in. The first game console to use this format was the Fairchild Channel F. However, it was the Atari 2600 that made the plug-in concept popular among the game-playing public. Originally known as the Atari VCS—for Video Computer System—the machine's name was changed to "Atari 2600" (from the unit's Atari part number, CX2600) in 1982, after the release of the more advanced Atari 5200. It was wildly successful, and during the 1980s, "Atari" was a synonym for this model in mainstream media. The 2600 was typically bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a cartridge game - initially Combat and subsequently Pac-Man.

History
Atari had purchased an engineering think-tank in 1973 called Cyan Engineering to research next-generation video game systems, and had been working on a prototype known as "Stella" (named after one of the engineers' bicycles) for some time. Unlike prior generations of machines which used custom logic to play a small number of games, Stella's core was a complete CPU, the famous MOS Technology 6502 in a cost-reduced version, known as the 6507. It was combined with a RAM-and-I/O chip, the MOS Technology 6532, and a display and sound chip of their own design known as the TIA, for Television Interface Adaptor. Beyond those three, the first two versions of the machine contain just one more chip, a standard CMOS logic buffer IC, bringing the total chip count to the very low and cost-effective number of four. Some later versions of the console eliminated the buffer chip. At first the design was not going to be cartridge-based, but after seeing a "fake" cartridge system on another machine, they realized they could place the games on cartridges essentially for the price of the connector and packaging.
In August 1976, Fairchild Semiconductor released their own CPU-based system, the Video Entertainment System. Stella was still not ready for production, but it was clear that it needed to be before there were a number of "me too" products filling up the market – which had happened after they released Pong. Atari simply didn't have the cash flow to complete the system quickly, given that sales of their own Pong systems were cooling. Nolan Bushnell eventually turned to Warner Communications, and sold the company to them in 1976 for US$28 million on the promise that Stella would be produced as soon as possible.
Key to the eventual success of the machine was the hiring of Jay Miner, a chip designer who managed to squeeze an entire breadboard of equipment making up the TIA into a single chip. Once that was completed and debugged the system was ready for shipping. By the time it was released in 1977, the development had cost about US$100 million.

Development and market considerations
The initial price was US$199 with a library of 9 titles. In a move to compete directly with the Channel F, Atari named the machine the Video Computer System (or VCS for short), as the Channel F was at that point known as the VES, for Video Entertainment System. The 2600 was also rebadged as the Sears Video Arcade and sold through Sears, Roebuck and Company stores. When Fairchild learned of Atari's naming, they quickly changed the name of their system to become the Channel F. However, both systems were now in the midst of a vicious round of price-cutting: Pong clones made obsolete by these newer and more powerful machines sold off their boxes to discounters for ever-lower prices. Soon many of the clone companies were out of business, and both Fairchild and Atari were selling to a public that was completely burnt out on Pong. In 1977, Atari sold only 250,000 VCSs. For the first year of production, the 2600 was manufactured in Sunnyvale, California. The consoles manufactured here had thick internal RF shielding & thick plastic molding around the sides & bottom. These added weight to the console, and being that all 6 switches were on the front, these consoles were nicknamed "Heavy Sixers". After this first year, production moved to Hong Kong, and the consoles manufactured there had thinner RF shielding & plastic molding. In 1978, only 550,000 units from a production run of 800,000 were sold, requiring further financial support from Warner to cover losses. This led directly to the disagreements that caused Atari founder Nolan Bushnell to leave the company in 1978.
Once the public realized it was possible to play video games other than Pong, and programmers learned how to push its hardware's capabilities, the 2600 gained popularity. By this point, Fairchild had given up, thinking video games were a passed fad -- thereby handing the entire quickly growing market to Atari. By 1979, the 2600 was the best-selling Christmas present (and console), mainly because of its exclusive content, and a million were sold that year.
Atari then licensed the smash arcade hit Space Invaders by Taito, which greatly increased the unit's popularity when it was released in January 1980, doubling sales again to over 2 million units. The 2600 and its cartridges were the main factor behind Atari grossing more than $2 billion in profits in 1980. Sales then doubled again for the next two years, with almost 8 million units selling in 1982.
In 1980, the Atari 2600 was given a minor revision in which the left and right difficulty switches were moved to the back of the console, leaving 4 switches on the front. Other than this, these 4-switch consoles looked nearly identical to the earlier 6-switch models. In 1982, another version of the 4-switch console was released without woodgrain. They were nicknamed "Darth Vader" consoles due to their all-black appearance. These were also the first consoles to be officially called "Atari 2600", being that the Atari 5200 was released the same year.
During this period, Atari expanded the 2600 family with two other compatible consoles. They designed the Atari 2700, a wireless version of the console that was never released because of a design flaw.[1] The company also built a sleeker version of the machine dubbed the Atari 2800 to sell directly to the Japanese market in early 1983, but it suffered from competition with the newly released Nintendo Famicom.

Launch and runaway success
During this period, Atari continued to grow until it had one of the largest R&D divisions in Silicon Valley. They spent much of their R&D budget on projects that seemed rather out of place at a video game (or even home computer) company; many of these projects never saw the light of day. Meanwhile, several attempts to bring out newer consoles failed for one reason or another, although their home computer systems, the Atari 8-bit family, sold reasonably, if not spectacularly. Warner was more than happy anyway, as it seemed to have no end to the sales of the 2600, and Atari was responsible for over half of the company's income.
The programmers of many of Atari's biggest hits grew disgruntled with the company for not crediting game developers. For example, Rick Mauer, the programmer of Atari 2600 Space Invaders, received no credit and made only $11,000 for his efforts, in spite of the cartridge grossing more than $100 million in sales. Most notably, Warren Robinett, the lead programmer of Adventure, in protest against Atari's anonymity policy, hid his name in a secret room within the game. This was one of the first "Easter eggs"—a hidden treat or in-joke—a practice which continues in software development to this day. Many other programmers left the company and formed their own independent software companies. The most prominent and longest-lasting of these third-party developers was Activision, founded in 1980, whose titles quickly became more popular than those of Atari itself. Atari attempted to block third-party development for the 2600 in court but failed, and soon other publishers, such as Imagic and Coleco, entered the market. Atari suffered from an image problem when a company named Mystique produced a number of pornographic games for the 2600. The most notorious of these, Custer's Revenge, caused a large number of protests from women's and Native American groups. Atari sued Mystique in court over the release of the game.
Atari continued to scoop up licenses during the shelf life of the 2600, the most prominent of which included Pac-Man and E.T. Public disappointment with these two titles and the market saturation of bad third-party titles are cited as big reasons for the video game crash of 1983. Suddenly, Atari's growth meant it was losing massive amounts of money during the crash, at one point about $10,000 a day. Warner quickly grew tired of supporting the now-headless company, and started looking for buyers in 1984.

Decline
Although not formally discontinued, the 2600 was de-emphasized for two years after Warner's 1984 sale of Atari's Consumer Division to Commodore Business Machines founder Jack Tramiel, who wanted to concentrate on home computers. In 1986, a new version of the 2600 was released (although it was planned for release two years earlier). The new redesigned version of the 2600, unofficially referred to as the 2600 Jr., featured a smaller cost-reduced form factor with a modernized Atari 7800-like appearance. The redesigned 2600 was advertised as a budget gaming system (under $50) that had the ability to run a large collection of classic games. With its introduction came a resurgence in software development both from Atari and from a few third parties (notably, Activision, Absolute Entertainment, Froggo, Epyx, and Exus). The Atari 2600 continued to sell in the USA and Europe until 1990, and in Asia until the early 1990s. Its final Atari-licensed release was KLAX in 1990. Over its lifetime, an estimated 40 million units were shipped, and its video game library reportedly numbers more than 900 titles with commercial games released for this system all the way until 1991. In Brazil, the console became extremely popular in the mid-1980s. The Atari 2600 was officially retired by Atari on January 1, 1992, making it the longest-lived home video game console in US game history. It had a lifespan of 14 years and 2 months, nearly three times the typical lifespan of a console.
At the turn of the millennium, 25-years-plus after the launch of the Atari 2600, new homebrew games for the system are still made and sold by hobbyists with several new titles available each year. The console and its old and new games are very popular with collectors because of its significant impact on video game and consumer electronics history and also due to its nostalgic value for many people. In addition, modern Atari 2600 clones remain on the market. One example is the Atari Classics 10-in-1 TV Game, manufactured by Jakks Pacific, which simulates the 2600 console, and includes converted versions of 10 games into a single Atari-brand-look-a-like joystick with composite video outputs for connecting directly to modern televisions or VCRs. Another is the TV Boy, which includes 127 games in an enlarged joypad.
Additionally, Benjamin Heckendorn has created several different versions of a portable 2600, created by cutting apart full-sized vintage units, adding screens and putting them into new enclosures.
The Atari Flashback 2 console, released in 2005, contains 40 games (with four more programs unlockable by a cheat code). The console implements the original 2600 architecture and can be modified to play original 2600 cartridges by adding a cartridge port, and is compatible with original 2600 controllers.
The Atari insignia has become an iconic pop cultural logo.

Atari 2600 in music
Atari 2600 emulation is available for most major operating systems and is now very accurate. Despite the relative simplicity of the 2600 system, it is not a simple system to emulate. While it does not require lots of computational power to emulate the 2600, it is hard to accurately do so. For example, because of the lack of a frame buffer (discussed below), 2600 emulators must not only emulate the console, but the television as well. Due to the longevity of the system, many 2600 games used undocumented features, and even exploited bugs in the hardware and firmware to harness the most of the system, doing things even the original designers would deem impossible (a notable example is the starfield of the game Cosmic Ark). It took some time for the emulator programmers to mature their software to properly emulate the undocumented features, bugs and quirks of the system.
The MESS emulator supports recording and playing back of Atari 2600 emulation sessions. The Home Action Replay Page (aka HARP) allows Atari 2600 users to archive their favorite play sessions of the Atari 2600 system and its games.
Some well known Atari 2600 emulators today are:

Stella - An open source, multiplatform, very popular emulator (Windows, Mac OS X, Linux) .
z26 - Another open source, multiplatform, very popular and customizable emulator (Windows, MS-DOS, Linux)
PC Atari Emulator - Easy to use, very fast and popular emulator (Windows, MS-DOS). Handles the Cosmic Ark starfield effect correctly.
MESS - the multi system emulator that supports all old Atari console systems
The Pocket VCS - PPC - Easy to use, very fast and popular emulator (Windows CE). Emulation
The basic layout of the 2600 is fairly similar to most consoles and home computers of the era. The CPU was the MOS Technology 6507, a cut-down version of the 6502, running at 1.19 MHz in the 2600. The 6507 included fewer memory address pins — 13 instead of 16 — and no external interrupts to fit into a smaller 28-pin package. Smaller packaging was, and still is, an important factor in overall system cost, and since memory was very expensive at the time, the 6507's small 8 kb of maximum external memory space wasn't going to be used up anyway. In fact, memory was so expensive they couldn't imagine using up even 4K, and when they got a deal on 24-pin connectors for the cartridge socket, they were only too happy to thereby limit the games to 4K. Later games got around this limitation with bank switching.
The console had only 128 bytes of RAM for runtime data that included the call stack and the state of the game world. There was no frame buffer, as the necessary RAM would have been too expensive. Instead the video device had two bitmapped sprites, two one-line "missile" sprites, a one-pixel "ball," and a "playfield" that was drawn by writing a bit pattern for each line into a register just before the television scanned that line. As each line was scanned, a game had to identify the non-sprite objects that overlapped the next line, assemble the appropriate bit patterns to draw for those objects, and write the pattern into the register. By default the right side of the screen was a duplicate of the left; to control it separately, the software had to modify the patterns as the scan line was drawn. After the controller scanned the last active line, a more leisurely vertical blanking interval began, during which the game could process input and update the positions and states of objects in the world. Any mistake in timing produced visual artifacts, a problem programmers called racing the beam.
The video hardware gave the 2600 a reputation as one of the most complex machines in the world to program, but those programmers who understood it realized that such direct control over the video picture was also a source of flexibility. One advantage the 2600 had over more powerful competitors such as the ColecoVision was that the 2600 had no protection against altering settings in mid-line. For example, although each sprite nominally had only one color, it was possible to color the rows differently by changing the sprite's color as it was drawn. If the two hardware sprites were not enough for a game, a developer could share one sprite among several objects (as with the ghosts in Pac-Man) or draw software sprites, which was only a little more difficult than drawing a fixed playfield. The Pitfall! screen shot below demonstrates some of these tricks: the player is a multi-color sprite, one sprite is multiplexed for the logs and the scorpion, and the swinging vine is drawn by software. Despite the hardware limitations, many Atari 2600 games had a lot of action on the screen, creating an engaging experience.

Description
A comprehensive alphabetical list of games is given in the article List of Atari 2600 games
Atlantis Imagic (1982)
Breakout Atari (1978)
Donkey Kong Coleco (1982)
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial Atari (1982)
Kaboom! Activision (1981)
Keystone Kapers Activision (1983)
Pac-Man Atari (1982)
Pitfall! Activision (1982)
Pole Position Atari (1983)
RealSports Tennis Atari (1983)
Solaris Atari (1986)
Space Invaders Atari (1980)
Swordquest series Atari (1982–1983)
Yars' Revenge Atari (1982)
Adventure Atari (1980)

Notable games

Technical specifications

CPU: 1.19 MHz MOS Technology 6507
Audio + Video processor: TIA. 160 x ~192 pixel, 128 colors (128 on screen. Max 4 per line without tricks), 2 channel mono sound.

• 1 square wave, 1 white noise.
  RAM (within a MOS Technology RIOT chip): 128 bytes (additional RAM may be included in the game cartridges)
  ROM (game cartridges): 4 kb maximum capacity (32 kb+ with bank switching)
  Input (controlled by MOS RIOT):
  
  
  
  • Two screwless DE-9 controller ports, for single-button joysticks, paddles, "trakballs", "driving controllers", 12-key "keyboard controllers" (0–9, #, and *) and third party controllers with additional functions
    Six switches (original version): Power on/off, TV signal (B/W or Color), Difficulty for each player (called A and B), Select, and Reset. Except for the power switch, games could (and did) assign other meanings to the switches. On later models the difficulty switches were miniaturized and moved to the back of the unit.
    Output: B/W or Color TV picture and sound signal through RCA connector (NTSC, PAL or SECAM, depending on region; game cartridges are exchangeable between NTSC and PAL/SECAM machines, but this will result in wrong or missing colors and often a rolling picture.) Third-party peripherals
    Also the Atari joysticks could be used in MSX and several Japanese computers. It is possible to use the joysticks in Sega systems like the Sega Master System or Sega Genesis in games that only require one button.
    
    Perry, Tekla; Wallich, Paul. "Design case history: the Atari Video Computer System". IEEE Spectrum. March 1983.

Max Linder (December 16, 1883 – October 31, 1925) was an influential French pioneer of silent film.

Birth and early career
Max Linder created what was probably the first identifiable motion-picture character who appeared in successive situation comedies. Linder made more than one hundred short films portraying "Max," a wealthy and dapper man-about-town frequently in hot water because of his penchant for beautiful women and the good life. By 1911, he was directing his own films as well as writing the script and the universality of silent films brought Linder fame and fortune throughout Europe, making him the highest paid entertainer of the day. World War I brought a temporary end to his career in film. Physically unfit for combat duty, he worked as a dispatch driver during the war until he was seriously wounded.

United States
The aftereffects of Linder's war service was that he suffered from continuing health problems including bouts of severe depression. In 1923, he married an 18-year old girl with whom he had a daughter they named Maud Max Linder aka Josette. The emotional problems besetting Linder evidenced themselves in early 1924 when he and his wife attempted suicide at a hotel in Vienna, Austria. They were found and were recuperated, the incident covered up by the physician reporting it as an accidental overdose of sleeping powder. However, in Paris on October 31, 1925 Linder and his wife were successful in taking their own lives.

Legacy

New York Times; November 01, 1925; page 1. "Max Linder and Wife in Double Suicide; They Drink Veronal, Inject Morphine and Open Veins in Their Arms. Paris; October 31, 1925. Max Linder, one of the earliest film comedians in the world, committed suicide this morning in a death compact with his lovely wife, formerly Miss Peters, a wealthy Paris heiress."
New York Times; November 02, 1925; page 1. "Max Linder's wife could not quit him; Refused to Heed Her Mother's Pleading, Though She Wrote "He Will Kill Me." Bothe left last letters. "Quo Vadis" Film Is Believed to Have Pointed One Way of Suicide to Star. Paris; November 01, 1925. Permission to bury the bodies of Max Linder, France's great cinema actor, and his wife, was given today by the Magistrate in charge of the inquiry into the causes of their death, and so it must become the official version that they died in a suicide compact."
New York Times; January 20, 1935; page 19. "Parents of suicide dispute over child; French Comedian and Wife Who Killed Themselves in Paris Left Conflicting Wills. Paris; January 19, 1935 (AP) Nine years after the double suicide of Max Linder, celebrated French movie comedian, and his wife the court contest for custody of their daughter, Josette, has been renewed between two embittered families."

The Battle of Cer also known as Battle of Jadar (the main operations were held near the estuary of the Jadar)river. One of the first battles of World War I, it also marked the first Allied victory in the war. The battle was fought between the Austro-Hungarian Army and Serbian forces. Results improved Serbian standing in the Alliance. Western faith in the competence of the Serbian Army was vastly improved. Austro-Hungarian troops fought under the command of General Oskar Potiorek and Liberius von Frank who was in direct command of Austro-Hungarian forces at Cer and Serbian troops under the command of General Stepa Stepanović.

Battle Summary
When the First World War started the Austro-Hungarian Army under the command of General Oskar Potiorek pushed into northwestern Serbia across the Sava and the Drina. Šabac fell. Following the expansion of bridgeheads, most elements of 2nd and 5th army succesfuly crossed into Serbia by 12th August. Potiorek's own 6th army was still concentrating further south and was in no position to begin large operation at this time, so the brunt of the fighting in following days was on the 5th Army. According to Potjorek's plan, it was to attack in the general direction of Valjevo immediately after the crossing and take the city in five days.

Serbian Response
Another thing of great importance during Cer battle was Putnik's unwillingness to conduct aggressive offensive maneuvers (this was also the case in the First Balkan War) due to his fear of unnecessary risk which could lead to higher casualties in already undermanned Serbian army. An evident example was his overruling of General Stepanović's proposal on the eve of the third day of the battle. Stepanović sensed that Austro-Hungarian forces on Cer an Everk were beginning to crumble, so he suggested a bold maneuver in which his Kombinovana and Moravska divisions would conduct a forced frontal pursuit of opposing troops on Cer and Everk ridges, whilst the Cavalry and Timočka (this division was hardly used during the entire course of the battle, to significant dissadvantage regarding the outcome) divisions would conduct a parallel pursuit on the northern slope of Cer towards Lešnica, with orders to attack both the enemy's flanks and to reach the pontoon bridges on Drina river and therefore cut Fifth Army's main line of retreat. If this maneuver was conducted, possibillity of a catastrophe for Austro-Hungarian arms was significant. Yet, Putnik ordered Stepa to pursuit enemy force frontally and not to conduct any sort of flanking attack, which would, in itself, cause far larger casualties upon retreating enemy. Third Army's loss of contact with enemy on the third day of the battle also helped Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army to withdraw in a more orderly fashion. Considering this information, it is obvious that the invading force could have suffered a far costlier defeat and shows Putnik as a superb organiser (his mobilisation plans for both Balkans wars and World War I were excellent, considering the low quality of roads in Serbia and lack of a significant railroad network), yet overcautious in the conduct of battles.
During August 1914 a battle was waged in the area of Mt. Cer, in which around 200,000 Austro-Hungarians fought against 180,000 Serbs. The main battle at Cer lasted from August 16 to 19. The Serbian Army won the victory, pushed the Austro-Hungarian Army back across the Drina, and completely thwarted their war plan.

Outcome
Historical artifacts can be found in a museum located in the town of Šabac.

Love Restored was a Jacobean era masque, written by Ben Jonson; it was performed on Twelfth Night, January 6, 1612, and first published in 1616. The Dictionary of National Biography says of the masque, "This vindication of love from wealth is a defense of the court revels against the strictures of the puritan city."
Compared to Jonson's previous masques for the Stuart Court, Love Restored was unusual in several respects. Love Restored could be called a "budget" masque, in that its total bill was only in the hundreds of pounds rather than the thousands; specifically, it cost only £280.
The text of the masque was published in the first folio collection of Jonson's works in 1616, and was reprinted in the second folio of 1640 and in later collections.

A link-state routing protocol is one of the two main classes of routing protocols used in packet-switched networks for computer communications. Examples of link-state routing protocols include OSPF and IS-IS.
The link-state protocol is performed by every switching node in the network (i.e. nodes which are prepared to forward packets; in the Internet, these are called routers). The basic concept of link-state routing is that every node receives a map of the connectivity of the network, in the form of a graph showing which nodes are connected to which other nodes.
Each node then independently calculates the best next hop from it for every possible destination in the network. (It does this using only its local copy of the map, and without communicating in any other way with any other node.) The collection of best next hops forms the routing table for the node.
This contrasts with distance-vector routing protocols, which work by having each node share its routing table with its neighbors. In a link-state protocol, the only information passed between the nodes is information used to construct the connectivity maps.

History
This description covers only the simplest configuration; i.e. one with no areas, so that all nodes do have a map of the entire network. The hierarchical case is somewhat more complex; see the various protocol specifications.
As previously mentioned, the first main stage in the link-state algorithm is to give a map of the network to every node. This is done with several simple subsidiary steps.

Distributing maps
First, each node needs to determine what other ports it is connected to, over fully-working links; it does this using a simple reachability protocol which it runs separately with each of its directly-connected neighbours.

Determining the neighbours of each node
Next, each node periodically makes up a short message, the link-state advertisement, which:
This message is then flooded throughout the network. As a necessary precursor, each node in the network remembers, for every other node in the network, the sequence number of the last link-state message which it received from that node. With that in hand, the method used is simple.
Starting with the node which originally produced the message, it sends a copy to all of its neighbours. When a link-state advertisement is received at a node, the node looks up the sequence number it has stored for the source of that link-state message. If this message is newer (i.e. has a higher sequence number), it is saved, and a copy is sent in turn to each of that node's neighbours.
This procedure rapidly gets a copy of the latest version of each node's link-state advertisement to every node in the network.

Identifies the node which is producing it.
Identifies all the other nodes to which it is directly connected.
Includes a sequence number, which increases every time the source node makes up a new version of the message. Distributing the information for the map
Finally, with the complete set of link-state advertisements (one from each node in the network) in hand, it is obviously easy to produce the graph for the map of the network.
The algorithm simply iterates over the collection of link-state advertisements; for each one, it makes links on the map of the network, from the node which sent that message, to all the nodes which that message indicates are neighbours of the sending node.
No link is considered to have been correctly reported unless the two ends agree; i.e. if one node reports that it is connected to another, but the other node does not report that it is connected to the first, there is a problem, and the link is not included on the map.

Creating the map
The link-state message giving information about the neighbours is recomputed, and then flooded throughout the network, whenever there is a change in the connectivity between the node and its neighbours, e.g. when a link fails. Any such change will be detected by the reachability protocol which each node runs with its neighbours.

Notes about this stage
As initially mentioned, the second main stage in the link-state algorithm is to produce routing tables, by inspecting the maps. This is again done with several steps.

Calculating the routing table
Each node independently runs an algorithm over the map to determine the shortest path from itself to every other node in the network; generally some variant of Dijkstra's algorithm is used.
Basically, a node maintains two data structures: a tree containing nodes which are "done", and a list of candidates. The algorithm starts with both structures empty; it then adds to the first one the node itself. The algorithm then repetitively:
This procedure ends with the tree containing all the nodes in the network, with the node on which the algorithm is running as the root of the tree. The shortest path from that node to any other node is indicated by the list of nodes one traverses to get from the root of the tree, to the desired node in the tree.

Adds to the second (candidate) list all nodes which are connected to the node just added to the tree (excepting of course any nodes which are already in either the tree or the candidate list).
Of the nodes in the candidate list, moves to the tree (attaching it to the appropriate neighbour node already there) the one which is the closest to any of the nodes already in the tree.
Repeat as long as there are any nodes left in the candidate list. (When there are none, all the nodes in the network will have been added to the tree.) Calculating the shortest paths
With the shortest paths in hand, filling in the routing table is again obviously easy.
For any given destination node, the best next hop for that destination is the node which is the first step from the root node, down the branch in the shortest-path tree which leads toward the desired destination node.
To create the routing table, it is only necessary to walk the tree, remembering the identity of the node at the head of each branch, and filling in the routing table entry for each node one comes across with that identity..

Filling the routing table
The algorithm described above was made as simple as possible, to aid in ease of understanding. In practise, there are a number of optimizations which are used.
Most importantly, whenever a change in the connectivity map happens, it is necessary to recompute the shortest-path tree, and then recreate the routing table. The BBN work discovered how to recompute only that part of the tree which could have been affected by a given change in the map.
Also, the routing table would normally be filled in as the shortest-path tree is computed, instead of making it a separate operation.

Regina King (born January 15, 1971 in Los Angeles, California) is an American film and television actress. She first started her acting career in 1985 in the role of Marla Gibbs' daughter Brenda on the television series 227, a role she played until 1990. She went on to star in John Singleton's film Boyz N the Hood. In 1996, she played the love interest of Martin Lawrence in A Thin Line Between Love and Hate. Also in 1996, she got much notoriety starring in the blockbuster Jerry Maguire with Tom Cruise and Cuba Gooding Jr. This film brought King mainstream recognition in her role as Cuba Gooding Jr.'s wife. She went on to star in Daddy Day Care with Golden Globe winner Eddie Murphy. King played Margie Hendricks, a singer in Ray Charles' backup group the Raylettes and one of the musical legend's mistresses. King went on to star in Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous in 2005 starring opposite Sandra Bullock as a tough FBI agent. The actress then went on to her next film project Ant Bully. Today King acts in feature films. Recently she has played backup singer Margie Hendricks in Ray. She also voice acts for the characters Huey and Riley Freeman on the Adult Swim show, The Boondocks. She appeared in season 6 of the hit show 24. She attended Westchester High School (Los Angeles) and University of Southern California. She played Will Smith's character's wife in the spy thriller "Enemy of the State."
She married Ian Alexander, Sr. on April 23, 1997. The couple has one child. Regina filed for divorce on November 8, 2006 citing "irreconcilable differences."

A spiritual (or negro spiritual) was a song created by American slaves before emancipation, or a subsequent arrangement of such a song.

Samples

Deep River Boys

Recognition (re+cognition) is a process that occurs in thinking when some event, process, pattern, or object recurs. Thus in order for something to be recognized, it must be familiar. This recurrence allows the recognizer to more properly react, survival value.
When the recognizer has correctly responded, this is a measure of understanding. For example, when some animals have never seen a human being before, they do not hide and they show no fear; but when they learn that a human being may be a threat, they may emit distress cries, flee or hide.
Even non-mammals can recognize when a situation signals danger, and will flee or hide. Baby spiders will flee when a mother spider sends a sharp pulse along the spider web. A male spider will gently poke a female spider's web to assess whether it is safe to approach the female without being killed himself.
In philosophy recognition became very important in Hegel's attempt at understanding the emergence of self-consciousness. Lack of recognition can also be attributed as alienation and it was this aspect of Hegel's work that Marx elaborated upon. The importance of recognition for Hegel is seen in his myth of the master-slave dialectic.

The Rhineland (Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany. After the collapse of the French Empire in the early 19th century, the German-speaking regions at the middle and lower course of the Rhine river were annexed to the kingdom of Prussia. The Prussian administration reorganised the territory as the Rhine Province (also known as Rhenish Prussia), a term continuing in the names of the German states of Rhineland-Palatinate and North Rhine-Westphalia. Following the First World War of the early 20th century, the western part of Rhineland was occupied by Entente forces, then demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. German forces reoccupied the territory in 1936, as part of a diplomatic test of will, three years before the outbreak of the Second World War.

Culture
The Rhine Province was created in 1824 by joining the provinces of Lower Rhine and Jülich-Cleves-Berg. Its capital was Koblenz; it had 8.0 million inhabitants by 1939. In 1920, the Saar was separated from the Rhine Province and administered by the League of Nations until a plebiscite in 1935, when the region was returned to Germany. At the same time, in 1920, the districts of Eupen and Malmedy were transferred to Belgium (see German-Speaking Community of Belgium). In 1946, the Rhine Province was divided up between the newly-founded states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate. The town of Wetzlar became part of Hesse.
Today, the German region of Rhineland consists of the states of Saarland, the southwestern half of North Rhine-Westphalia, and the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. North Rhine-Westphalia is one of the prime German industrial areas, containing significant mineral deposits (coal, lead, lignite, magnesium, oil and uranium) and water transport. In Rhineland-Palatinate agriculture is more important, especially the highly valued vineyards in the Ahr, Mittelrhein, Rheinhessen, Rheinpfalz, Rheingau and the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer area.

The political entity
Following the Armistice of 1918, Allied forces occupied the Rhineland as far east as the river with some small bridgeheads on the east bank at places like Cologne. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 the occupation was continued. The treaty specified three occupation Zones, which were due to be evacuated by Allied troops five, ten and finally 15 years after the formal ratification of the treaty, which took place in 1920, thus the occupation was intended to last until 1935. In fact, the last Allied troops left Germany five years prior to that date in 1930 in a good-will reaction to the Weimar Republic's policy of reconciliation in the era of Gustav Stresemann and the Locarno Pact.
Sections of the Rhineland bordering Belgium were annexed from Germany by the Treaty of Versailles. The cantons of Eupen, Malmedy and Sankt Vith though entirely German in culture and language became the East Cantons of Belgium.
The French troops especially had become notorious for their harsh treatment of the local civilian population. The French in a clear breach of the Treaty tried to separate the occupied areas from Germany by establishing an independent Rhenish Republic as a French puppet state. Separatist riots were encouraged and supported by the French, who tried to exploit traditional anti-Prussian resentments in the overwhelmingly Catholic region. In the end, the separatists failed to gain any decisive support among the population.
The treaty of Versailles also specified the de-militarization of the entire area to provide a buffer between Germany on one side and France, Belgium and Luxembourg (and to a lesser extent, the Netherlands) on the other side, which meant that no German forces were allowed there after the Allied forces had withdrawn. Furthermore (and quite unbearably from the German perspective) the treaty entitled the Allies to reoccupy the Rhineland at their will, if the Allies unilaterally found the German side responsible for any violation of the treaty.
In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the spirit of the Locarno Pact, Nazi Germany remilitarized the Rhineland on Saturday, March 7, 1936. The occupation was done with very little military force, the troops entering on bicycles, and no effort was made to stop it (See Appeasement of Hitler). France could not act due to political instability at the time, and, since the remilitarisation occurred on a weekend, the British Government could not find out or discuss actions to be taken until the following Monday. As a result of this, the governments were inclined to see the remilitarisation as a fait accompli.
Hitler took a risk when he sent his troops to the Rhineland. He told them to 'turn back and not to resist' if they were stopped by the French Army. The French did not try to stop them because they were currently holding elections and no president wanted to start a war with Germany.
The British government agreed with the act in principle, "The Germans are after all only going into their own back garden" Lord Lothian, but rejected the Nazi manner of accomplishing said act. Winston Churchill, however, advocated military action through cooperation by the British and the French.
The remilitarization of the Rhineland was favoured by some of the local population, because of a resurgence of German nationalism and harboured bitterness over the Allied occupation of the Rhineland until 1930 (Saarland until 1935).
A side-effect of the French occupations was the offspring of French colonial troops. These mixed-race Germans were not accepted into broader German society and were known as Rhineland Bastards. They were an object of the Nazi sterilisation programmes in the 1930s. The American poet Charles Bukowski was born in 1920 in Andernach as the son of a German mother and a Polish-American US soldier, serving among the occupation troops. Bukowski describes his father harshly, as making use of his army food supplies to get a German woman (Bukowski's mother) into his bed. This is an allusion to the intentional malnutrition of the civilian population in the time between the signature of the armistice and the peace treaty.

Following the First World War
Two different military campaigns were fought in the Rhineland.

The 1944-1945 military campaigns
For five months, from September 1944 until February 1945, the U.S. First Army fought a costly battle to capture the Hurtgen Forest. The heavily forested and ravined terrain of the Hurtgen negated Allied combined arms advantages( close air support, armor, artillery) and favoured German defenders. The U.S. Army lost 24,000 troops. The military necessity of their sacrifice has been argued over by military historians.

U.S. Army
In early 1945, after a long winter stalemate, military operations by most Allied armies in Northwest Europe resumed with the goal of reaching the Rhine. From their winter positions in The Netherlands, the First Canadian Army under General Henry Crerar reinforced by elements of the British Second Army under General Miles Dempsey, drove through the Rhineland beginning in the first week of February 1945.
Operation Veritable lasted several weeks, with the end result of clearing all German forces from the west side of the Rhine river. The supporting operation by the First US Army, Operation Grenade, was planned to coincide from the River Roer, in the south. This was delayed for two weeks however, by German flooding of the Roer valley.

Other actions
In the official histories of the British and Canadian armies, the term Rhineland refers only to fighting west of the river in February and March 1945, with subsequent operations on the river and to the east known as "Rhine Crossing". Both terms are official Battle Honours in the Commonwealth forces.